Dictionary and Thesaurus
We have already considered the Franciscan Order in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries when discussing The Little Flowers of St.
Francis, but it is well worth our time to dwell on the matter a bit
longer and consider how the dissensions of the time affected one
particular individual. The records of the Holy Office - the Inquisition -
allows us the opportunity to consider the plight in which a lady by the
name of Boneta found herself
The controversy within the Franciscan order did not vanish despite the
efforts of Bonaventure to bring about greater harmony. The argument
continued to dwell on the proper Franciscan way of life, with the
"Moderates" holding that a "moderate use" of world good was sufficient and
their opponents claiming that "a poor and scanty way of life" was the very
most that they could accept. Despite the established Church's support of
the Moderates, the more radical part of the order continued to have
considerable support and exerted considerable influence in society.
Francis had actually provided a leading example for a popular religious
sentiment that was spreading across Europe. In 1209, the year in which he
and his followers went to Rome to seek authorization for their way of life
from Innocent III, a group of women in the Netherlands gathered to form a
semi-ecclesiastical organization. They were, for the most part, widows and
spinsters, elderly folk who had outlived their friends and relatives, and
they joined together for mutual support and friendship, and to focus their
attention of virtuous and religious things. Called the Beguines, the
movement spread rapidly, The Beguines were not really nuns. They took no
vows, kept their own property, lived at home if they wished, could leave
the group, marry, and other things. Yet there were many single women, and
the Beguines provided them a group of like-minded colleagues, and the
protection that comes with sheer numbers. Interestingly enough, the
Beguines were attracted to mysticism from the very beginning, and, when
the radical Franciscans began adopting the mysticism of Joachim of Flor,
the women took up their vision.
There was also a male group, the Beghards, organized on much the same
model, which also became quite popular. Unlike the Beguines, however, the
Beghards were more closely allied with a single socio-economic class, the
urban artisans. It would appear that the Beghard congregations provided
those artisans no longer able to perform a full day's work a place of rest
and the support of men in similar situations. The Beghards also focused their attention on religion and did a great deal in the way of social work
and, like the Beguines, were deeply influenced by the mysticism of the
Spiritual Franciscans.
The conflict between the Spiritual Franciscans and the Church deepened
with the opening of the fourteenth century. One of the reasons may have
been the conflict between Pope Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair, king of
France. Philip wanted clerics to pay taxes like any other subject, and he
wanted clerics charged with having committed a secular crime to be tried
in a secular court. Boniface responded with the uncompromising papal bulls
clericos laicos, and unam sanctam, in the latter of which he claimed
absolute power for the Church to all intents and purposes. Philip
responded by convening an assembly, including churchmen, that declared the
pope heretical and ordered him deposed. Philip sent troops to Rome and
arrested and imprisoned Boniface, who died shortly after.
The Spirituals might have though that they would be protected by Philip.
In any event, they formally proclaimed their belief that Jesus and his
disciples owned no property, even collectively, and so the Franciscan goal
of living the life of Jesus meant absolute poverty. Their protected
position did not last long, however. In 1305, the College of Cardinals
elected a French pope and moved the papal capital to Avignon, a papal
possession bordering on French territory. Here they enjoyed the support
and protection of the French monarchy.
The entire episode created considerable disturbance, however, and, in
1312, a council was called to meet in Vienne, a town in France.
Interestingly enough, the council supported the Spiritual Franciscan's
insistence on "a poor and scanty" way of life, but condemned several
aspects of the belief in the poverty of Jesus and his disciples and what
were seen as the excesses of mysticism. The Beguines received special
attention, and were ordered to abandon their way of life. The papal
government was still in disarray, however, and could do little to deal
with the situation as a whole.
This situation changed with the election of the seventy-two year old Pope
John XXII, who began to organize things, centralizing power and increasing
ecclesiastical taxes in order to build the new capital at Avignon. The
claim that Jesus and the disciples had owned absolutely nothing was seen
by the pope as a reflection upon his efforts to increase the Church's
income, and he declared the belief Heretical. In 1318, after a group of
Spiritual Franciscans in southern France defied him, he had twenty-five of
them hauled before the Inquisition at Marseilles. All were found guilty of
heresy, and four were burned alive by the French King. In 1321, John
seemed to be making progress in curbing the wave of mysticism that was
leading men and women to seek communion with God directly, without means
of the sacraments or the mediation of the Church. In this mood, he lifted
the ban on the Beguines on the condition that they mend their ways
The situation changed drastically the next year. The civil war in German
between Frederick of Austria and Ludwig of Bavaria ended with Ludwig's
victory. Ludwig immediately marched on Rome, had himself crowned by a
local official, and installed a Franciscan, Peter Reinalducci, as
anti-pope. The situation did not last. Ludwig returned home and Peter
relinquished his dangerous dignity, and a the pope and emperor settled
down to a long conflict. Spiritual Franciscans, mystics, and other rebels
against papal authority in general and what was perceived as a grasping
and corrupt French puppet pope in particular made their way to Germany
where, under Ludwig's protection, they began a series of public attacks
upon the Church's doctrines and practices.
The administration of the Church used the Inquisition heavily in
attempting to root out these heresies in those territories that it did
control. It had its hands quite full in doing so. The Fraticelli were
running rampant in Italy, the Spiritual Franciscans were defying the pope
at Avignon, and even university personnel, such as the Dominican
professor, Master Eckhart, and his students at Cologne, were practicing
and writing about mystic communion with God that completely bypassed the
sacramental system that the Church held was necessary for salvation. It
was a period in which those concerned with protecting the established
Church would watch their neighbors and colleagues carefully, and spy on
them if necessary, for any indications that they might be holding such
beliefs or practicing such mystic communions. Such people would inform on
anyone whom they suspected, often secretly or anonymously, and their
charges would be forwarded to the Inquisition, who would then question the
person so charged.
By and large, the personnel of the Inquisition tried to be fair and
understanding. They kept meticulous records of the statements of the
accused and took every step possible to ensure that those records were
accurate and unbiased. If they found that the accused was in error, they
were careful to explain the matter and to offer him or her ample
opportunity to recant. They did not, except in rare and illegal instances,
use torture or threats. In fact, there was rarely any need to press the
person being interviewed. They were normally quite aware of what beliefs
of theirs were contrary to Church teachings, and often enough refused to
give them up and be received back into the Church's graces. In such cases,
the Inquisition could do no more and turned them over to secular
authorities since heresy was a secular crime as well as an ecclesiastical
sin.
Boneta, a woman belonging to the Beguines of the southern French city of
Montpelier, the site of a long-established University and a center of
Franciscan activity, had been caught up in the mystical fervor of the
times. She had seen visions, talked with God, and firmly believed that the
Church had betrayed its spiritual mission so completely that it no longer
enjoyed any divine authority, that the sacraments were now useless, and
that people now had to seek God themselves and in their own way. One must
picture a lone woman, facing a group of well-educated and experienced
Dominican Inquisitors, knowing that what she is saying is leading her
straight to a stake where she will be burned to death, to appreciate how
completely she has rejected the Church and the hatred that she felt toward
it. Some of her beliefs may appear confused and more than a bit fantastic,
but one must take them seriously. Boneta was willing to die rather than
give them up.
In the Inquisitorial record of her questioning, you have the opportunity
to hear a person from the fourteenth century discuss the intimate details
of her life and beliefs. In reading this account, try to enter into
Boneta's world and thoughts. There are many questions you should be
asking, such as whether all of the men and women of fourteenth-century
Europe capable of such deep spiritual fervor? There is, as there usually
is, another side to the coin. It does no good to look back into the past
and cast people into the roles of villains and heroes like those in a
old-fashioned Western movie. I might be quite wrong, but I believe that
people generally act on the basis of what they consider valid principles.
If this is usually the case, how could the Inquisitors listen to her and
not doubt their own function? What did they consider so important that
they were willing to participate in the death of such people as Boneta in
order to protect it? It's always easier to sympathize with the hero than
to try to understand the villain. Try the more difficult path. You'll find
that the exercise is well-worth the effort.
I hope that you enjoy reading
The Process of Na Prous Bonett (1325).
|
